The writer of the Letter to the Hebrews reminds Christians that they are surrounded by a great "cloud of witnesses." (NRSV) That "cloud" has continued to grow in size since then. In this monthly column we will be thinking about some of the people and events, over the past 2000 years, that have helped make up this "cloud." People and events that have helped build the community of the Christian church as it exists today.

In the 7th century AD, the Christian Church in England was transformed by the work of two remarkable men. Neither was born in England, or for that matter in the British Isles. The two men in question were Theodore of Tarsus (now in modern Turkey), also known as Theodore 'the Syrian,' and Hadrian 'the African' (from North Africa).

Though well known to historians of early medieval England and Britain, most modern believers in the UK will never have heard of them. Yet, between them, these two Christians from the Mediterranean world helped to transform the Christian community in early England. And their influence spread across the British Isles. They were two remarkable men of faith, learning, and influence.

The British Isles in the 7th century

Politically and culturally, the British Isles in the 7th century were complex, fragmented, multi-cultural, ethnically and linguistically diverse, and experiencing a time of tremendous change.

In the early 5th century, formal Roman rule had ended in Britain. Prior to that, Roman political and military control and cultural influence had dominated what is now England and Wales and had extended well into what is today southern Scotland (none of these countries then existed).

Further north, the highlands of Scotland were never conquered (after a failed Roman attempt in the late 1st century) and remained outside direct imperial control. Ireland was never invaded by Rome. During the time of the Roman Empire in Britain (basically from AD 43–410) much of Britain was plugged into a vast, multi-cultural political unit that stretched from southern Scotland to Syria (and at times further east); from the Rhine and Danube frontiers to North Africa and southern Egypt.

As a result, it was possible to find Syrian archers and Tigris boatmen operating on Hadrian's Wall (begun c.122), rubbing shoulders with cavalry drawn from Frisia and even from the steppe lands of modern Ukraine and southern Russia (Sarmatians).

In the Roman provinces, urbanisation was encouraged, a market economy thrived, wealthy local elites bought into the Roman way of life, and this trickled down into wider society. Agricultural production increased to support imperial taxation and the army. Ideas from across the Roman world met and co-existed in the imperial provinces.

In the 5th century this changed dramatically. With the end of imperial rule, unified political control collapsed, as did urban life (it had been in steep decline for over a century) and the market economy. Roman Britain fragmented into a series of warring little states. In the east, rulers bought in 'Germanic muscle' to bolster their positions; in the west the same occurred with the employment of Irish mercenaries.

Settlers from north-western Germany and southern Denmark seem to have accompanied leaders who were carving out a new life in what had once been Roman Britain. Irish settlers arrived in western Wales. How many immigrants arrived is a matter for much heated conjecture.

By the year 600, much of what is now central, southern and eastern England was a patchwork of little kingdoms, in which 'English' was becoming the dominant language (in the 'Old English' form) and culture. It was becoming culturally 'Anglo-Saxon,' even if many in its population were descendants of indigenous communities.

In the west and north, British kingdoms (speaking a language which would develop into Welsh) resisted the incomers, with mixed results. Beyond the old imperial frontiers, Irish immigration was on its way to changing 'Pictland' into 'Scotland.' And the island of Ireland remained a conglomerate of little kingdoms, with those in the north-east strongly connected with those in the south-west of what would become Scotland.

It was a dynamic – if conflicted – time of change and it also witnessed the formation (and re-formation) of identities that survive into modern times.

The backstory of Christian faith in the British Isles

Christianity had a fascinating backstory in Britain. We do not know when the faith reached the islands. It is likely that it first came via traders from the Mediterranean world and from Gaul (modern France). There is no record of formal missionary expeditions to the islands. Around the year 200, the Carthaginian theologian Tertullian (in North Africa) included Britain in a list of places already reached by Christianity. His contemporary, the Greek theologian Origen, wrote something similar.

During the 3rd century persecutions, believers in Britain died for their faith. Alban, Julius and Aaron, three Romano-British Christians (mentioned in early medieval sources), were probably martyred for the faith at this time. After the Edict of Milan, in 313, and accompanying the conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity, the persecution halted.

We know that three British bishops attended the imperial council at Arles in 314. These were probably from what are now York, London and Lincoln (but this is not entirely certain). This reveals that, by the early 4th century, the British Christian community in the imperial provinces was organised on a regional basis under bishops. In the year 391, Emperor Theodosius finally banned all pagan religions throughout the empire. This made Christianity the official Roman religion.

By the end of the Roman Empire, it is likely that Christians (whether nominal or committed) made up a sizeable proportion of the population in Roman Britain. However, these were probably concentrated in urban settings and also among many of the villa-owning class and on their estates, in the army, and in the imperial administration. Out in rural society (making up at least 90% of the population) the picture was probably mixed and our modern word 'pagan' is derived from the Latin for 'country-dweller.'

In the turbulence of the 5th and 6th centuries – as the old political units broke up and reformed – we largely lose sight of Christianity in what is today eastern England. The emerging Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) culture was pagan, worshipping gods such as Woden and Thunor (better known by their Norse names of Odin and Thor) and other gods and goddesses.

In the west and north, the British communities were stridently Christian, signalling their culture as descended from imperial times and sharply differentiated from the 'pagan barbarians' to the east. They seem to have been in no hurry to convert these hated incomers, but things may have been more complex on the ground.

Christian missionaries (most famously Patrick) had had a huge impact in Ireland. From there Christian missionaries then moved the other way, bringing the faith into northern Britain and also influencing northern Anglo-Saxon rulers, who often sought refuge in Ireland, or in Irish-influenced communities such as Iona, during times of dynastic conflict. This is often called the 'Celtic Church,' but no such separate term or organisation existed at the time. They simply considered themselves part of the 'Catholic' (ie universal) Christian Church, in the West. Later labels rather obscure and confuse this.

In 597, official missionaries – sent by the pope in Rome – arrived in Kent. Their job was to work to convert the English kingdoms; bolster British Christian communities that had survived the collapse of Roman rule; and link up with the surviving British Church, to form one united organisation headed by the new arrivals (this last part did not go well for various reasons). This official Christian conversion activity was added to the existing Christian missionary activities taking place in the islands, led by Irish and Gaulish (now Frankish) Christians. A huge religious change was now added to the mix of communities in flux. It was an extraordinary time.

The impact of two remarkable Mediterranean Christians

By the middle of the 7th century a number of the early English kingdoms had converted to Christianity but the new religion had still not firmly put down roots; there were ongoing disputes with the British Church (despite the Synod of Whitby in 664 which decided in favour of the Roman, rather than British Church, in a number of key areas); church organisation was still fairly rudimentary; many people had not yet converted or were in areas thinly covered by clergy; there was a severe shortage of local people trained in scriptural knowledge, liturgy and leadership. It was in this context that a new archbishop of Canterbury (the head church in the country) had died, in 667, while in Rome and before receiving papal authority.

The pope's first choice to replace him was Hadrian 'the African,' an abbot born in North Africa but resident in Italy. Hadrian turned down the job and suggested the 65-year-old Theodore of Tarsus (a place now in modern Turkey). He had been educated at Antioch and in Edessa in Syria and, for this reason, he is sometimes called Theodore 'the Syrian.' Both men had experienced a high level of turbulence in their lives.

Theodore had fled Tarsus after the Persian Empire conquered it and other cities. This Persian advance was followed by Muslim conquests, which reached Tarsus in 637. It is uncertain after which of these conquests he left his native region. After studying in Constantinople, he relocated to Rome. He was a religious refugee fleeing devastating wars.

Hadrian was North African, probably a Berber, and almost certainly from what is now Libya. It is likely that the Arab Islamic invasions of Cyrenaica (AD 642–645) caused Hadrian to flee to Italy as a refugee. Consequently, both men's lives resonate remarkably with the turbulent world of the twenty-first century.

In the end, in 668, the pope sent them both. Theodore was to provide the leadership in church government and policy. Hadrian – who was very well versed in the scriptures, a good administrator, and fluent in Latin and Greek – was to transform the knowledge-base of the new Church and educate candidates for manning it and leading it. The early 8th century Northumbrian monk, Bede, wrote that Hadrian had already made two journeys into Gaul (modern France), so was probably experienced as a diplomat as well as being an abbot. It turned out to be a winning combination.

The transformation of the Christian Church in England

Theodore provided strong leadership which – as Bede later commented – "all the English obeyed." He energetically toured the kingdoms, filled vacant bishoprics and presided over the first council of the entire English Church, at Hertford in 673. In addition, he established clear territorial boundaries for the various dioceses, and founded new dioceses where needed. The body of canon law drawn up under his supervision, and his structure of dioceses and pastoral care, set the pattern both for future missionary work and for teaching new converts.

The latter need was taken up by Hadrian, who became the abbot of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's in Canterbury and started a school there. The Canterbury school taught a wide curriculum: scripture study, theology, poetry, astronomy, and calendar calculation. Sacred music was also taught. Its students (whatever their birth language) learned Latin and Greek, the international languages of study.

Theodore died in 690, aged 88. Hadrian died in 710, of uncertain age. A new generation of Christian scholars and leaders emerged because of their work. These were either taught directly by them, such as Aldhelm (died 709) who later became Bishop of Sherborne (Dorset) and was energetic in missionary work; or who (such as Bede and Alcuin of York) were influenced by their educational programme or by those they had taught.

Alcuin of York later described Hadrian's legacy in Britain as "the light that came out of Africa." What had been a struggling missionary enterprise, had become a well-rooted province of the universal Church. It was a remarkable achievement by these two refugees, who had fled their homes due to warfare and religious upheaval, and then been sent to Britain to reform and revitalise the Christian community there.

Martyn Whittock is a historian and a Licensed Lay Minister in the Church of England. The author, or co-author, of fifty-six books, his work covers a wide range of historical and theological themes. In addition, as a commentator and columnist, he has written for several print and online news platforms and is frequently interviewed on TV and radio news and discussion programmes exploring the interaction of faith and politics. His recent books include: Trump and the Puritans (2020), Daughters of Eve (2021), Jesus The Unauthorized Biography (2021), The End Times, Again? (2021), The Story of the Cross (2021), Apocalyptic Politics (2022), and American Vikings: How the Norse Sailed into the Lands and Imaginations of America (2023). He is currently writing Vikings in the East: From Vladimir the Great to Vladimir Putin, the Origin of a Contested Legacy in Russia and Ukraine (2025 forthcoming).